Discursos dos cursos da área da saúde sobre gênero e biotecnologias no âmbito da formação / Discursos de los cursos de salud sobre género y biotecnologías en el contexto de la formación / Discourses of health courses on gender and biotechnologies in the context of training

RESUMO Objetivo: investigar os discursos sobre gênero e biotecnologias no âmbito da formação dos cursos da área da saúde. Metodologia: trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa exploratória descritiva que está alicerçada em um estudo maior - projeto de pesquisa - desenvolvido pelo Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisas em Saúde (GEPS), intitulado "Gênero e Biotecnologias: Interfaces entre discursos e instituições na formação de alunos dos cursos da área da saúde". A pesquisa ocorreu entre os meses de março e outubro de 2019, sendo realizada por meio de entrevistas semiestruturadas com estudantes brasileiros e espanhóis da área da saúde, gravadas em áudio e transcritas para Análise do Discurso. Resultados e Discussão: os achados indicam que Gênero e Biotecnologia são temáticas que não subsidiam as discussões da formação de futuros profissionais da saúde, mostrando um entendimento de gênero centrado numa norma binária, não havendo espaço para outras possibilidades identitárias, além de a heterossexualidade ser vista como padrão de comportamento a ser seguido. Percebe-se uma certa complexidade na formulação dos discursos dos estudantes no que se refere aos aspectos em que gênero e biotecnologias escapam da relação entre corpo biológico e utilização tecnológica para esses enquadramentos físicos e mentais. Considerações Finais: as discussões sobre gênero e biotecnologias nas universidades estudadas têm sido realizadas de forma isolada, sendo necessária uma reestruturação de seus currículos de modo que os temas apresentados passem a ser contemplados para que, efetivamente, componham a formação equitativa e integral de profissionais.

RESUMEN Objetivo: investigar los discursos sobre género y biotecnologías en el contexto de la formación de los cursos de salud. Metodología: se trata de una investigación exploratoria descriptiva cualitativa que se basa en un estudio más amplio -proyecto de investigación- desarrollado por el Grupo de Estudios e Investigación en Salud (GEPS), titulado: "Género y Biotecnologías: Interfaces entre discursos e instituciones en la formación de estudiantes de cursos de salud", que se produjo entre los meses de marzo y octubre de 2019 a través de entrevistas semiestructuradas, con estudiantes de salud brasileños y españoles, grabadas en audio y transcritas para el Análisis del Discurso. Resultados y discusión: los hallazgos indican que el Género y la Biotecnología son temas que no subsidian las discusiones de la formación de los futuros profesionales de la salud, mostrando una comprensión del género centrada en una norma binaria en la que no hay espacio para otras posibilidades de identidad y la heterosexualidad como norma de comportamiento a seguir. Se percibe cierta complejidad en la formulación de los discursos de los estudiantes, en cuanto a los aspectos en los que el género y las biotecnologías escapan de la relación entre el cuerpo biológico y el uso de la tecnología para estos marcos físicos y mentales. Consideraciones finales: las discusiones sobre género y biotecnologías en las universidades brasileñas y españolas se han llevado a cabo de forma aislada, y es necesario reestructurar estos planes de estudio para que los temas presentados puedan ser contemplados en los planes de estudio para que efectivamente compongan la formación equitativa e integral de los profesionales.

ABSTRACT Objective: to investigate the discourses on gender and biotechnologies within the training of health courses. Methodology: this is a qualitative, exploratory, and descriptive study that is based on a larger study - a research project - developed by the Studies and Research Group in Health (GEPS), entitled "Gender and Biotechnologies: Interfaces between discourses and institutions in the training of students from health courses." The research took place between March and October 2019 and was carried out through semi-structured interviews with Brazilian and Spanish health students, audio-recorded, and transcribed for Discourse Analysis. Results and Discussion: the findings indicate that Gender and Biotechnology are themes that do not subsidize the discussions of the training of future health professionals, showing an understanding of gender centered on a binary norm, with no space for other identity possibilities besides heterosexuality being seen as a standard of behavior to be followed. A certain complexity is perceived in the formulation of the students' speeches regarding the aspects in which gender and biotechnologies escape from the relationship between the biological body and the technological use for these physical and mental frameworks. Final Considerations: the discussions about gender and biotechnologies in the studied universities have been carried out in an isolated way, making it necessary to restructure their curricula so that the themes presented can be contemplated to effectively compose the equitable and integral formation of professionals.

What Is Addiction? History, Terminology, and Core Concepts.

Medicine's acceptance of addiction as a medical concept has waxed and waned over time. Addiction, as a disease, fits with modern disease definitions and scientific advances in elucidating the interactions between neurobiology and environment. Definitions of addiction need to acknowledge the complex interactions of brain circuits, genetics, environmental factors, and individual life experiences. Addiction aligns with diagnostic categories of substance use disorders that do not rely on tolerance and withdrawal as defining characteristics. Shifts in social and political views of addiction continue to propel and mirror changes in addiction treatment approaches and terminology within the medical community.

Perceptions and Attitudes of Hospital' Prescribers towards Drug Information Sources and Prescribing Practices

Abstract Healthcare professionals use a variety of drug information sources to fulfill their clinical needs and medical practice. The aim of present study was to assess the sources of drug information among hospital' prescribers and evaluate their prescribing behavior in Saudi hospitals. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among randomly selected hospital' prescribers using a self-administered questionnaire. The response rate to the survey was 64.29%, with a ratio of 76.44% male and 23.56% female. The internet 137(60.89%) and textbooks 86(38.22%) were the prevalent sources for drug information used. Up-To-Date 107(47.56%), Medscape 105(46.67%) and FDA 74(32.88%) were the common electronic drug sources used. About 151(67.11%) of hospital' prescribers considered the pharmacist as a reliable drug information source. The most favored drug requests by hospital' prescribers from the pharmacists were drug alternatives 110(48.89%) followed by drug interactions 94(41.78%), side effects 78(34.67%) and indications 60(26.67%). Therapeutic efficacy 168(74.67%) and drug availability 73(32.44%) were the main factors contributed to the selection of drugs. This study shows some differences in hospital prescribers' perceptions of sources of drug information depending upon their background and clinical practice. Therefore, knowing appropriate drug information used by hospital' prescribers is fundamental for drug efficacy and safety in clinical practice.

Scientists' political behaviors are not driven by individual-level government benefits.

Is it appropriate for scientists to engage in political advocacy? Some political critics of scientists argue that scientists have become partisan political actors with self-serving financial agendas. However, most scientists strongly reject this view. While social scientists have explored the effects of science politicization on public trust in science, little empirical work directly examines the drivers of scientists' interest in and willingness to engage in political advocacy. Using a natural experiment involving the U.S. National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship (NSF-GRF), we causally estimate for the first time whether scientists who have received federal science funding are more likely to engage in both science-related and non-science-related political behaviors. Comparing otherwise similar individuals who received or did not receive NSF support, we find that scientists' preferences for political advocacy are not shaped by receiving government benefits. Government funding did not impact scientists' support of the 2017 March for Science nor did it shape the likelihood that scientists donated to either Republican or Democratic political groups. Our results offer empirical evidence that scientists' political behaviors are not motivated by self-serving financial agendas. They also highlight the limited capacity of even generous government support programs to increase civic participation by their beneficiaries.

Prevalence of burnout in soccer athletes of the under-20 category over a sports season / Prevalência do burnout em atletas de futebol da categoria sub-20 ao longo de uma temporada esportiva

ABSTRACT The aims of the current study were: (a) to construct a reference table for burnout in soccer athletes of the U-20 category and (b) to verify the individual oscillations in the perception of these athletes in relation to burnout over three periods of the sports season. In total, 53 U-20 soccer athletes participated. The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire, Brazilian version, was applied to athletes during training, competition, and vacation periods of the sports season. A reference table was built for under-20 soccer athletes for each assessment period. Fluctuations were observed in the mean values of the total burnout frequency of the athletes during the 3 periods: training ( X ¯=1.35 ± 0.13 and X ¯=2.11 ± 0.19), competition ( X ¯=1.26 ± 0.13 and X ¯=2.27 ± 0.24), and vacation ( X ¯=1.27 ± 0.14 and X ¯= 2.18 ± 0.28). Based on this table and the individual classification of each athlete, it was observed that 32 athletes presented fluctuations in the perception of burnout during the sports season and 21 athletes did not present fluctuations in feelings of burnout during the three evaluation periods. The period with the highest number of athletes (n = 17) with a high level of burnout was the training period. It is concluded that it is not possible to establish a single and collective behavior regarding the fluctuations in burnout levels in athletes of the U-20 category during a sports season, and that the category reference table contributes to greater accuracy of the burnout evaluation in each period in the season.

RESUMO Os objetivos deste estudo foram (a) construir uma tabela de referência para o burnout em atletas de futebol da categoria sub-20 e (b) verificar as oscilações individuais na percepção destes atletas em relação ao burnout ao longo de três períodos da temporada esportiva. Participaram 53 atletas de futebol da categoria sub-20. Foi utilizado o Questionário de Burnout para Atleta nos períodos de treinamento, competição e férias durante uma temporada esportiva. Foi construída uma tabela de referência do burnout para atletas de futebol da categoria sub-20 para cada período avaliado. Foram encontradas oscilações nos valores médios da frequência do burnout total dos atletas durante os 3 períodos: treinamento( X ¯=1,35±0,13 e X ¯=2,11±0,19), competição ( X ¯=1,26±0,13 e X ¯=2,27±0,24) e férias ( X ¯=1,27±0,14 e X ¯=2,18±0,28).Baseado na tabela de referência e na classificação individual de cada atleta observou-se que 32 atletas apresentaram oscilações na percepção de burnout durante a temporada esportiva e 21 atletas não apresentaram oscilações nos sentimentos de burnout ao longo dos 3 períodos de avaliação. O período que teve o maior número de atletas (n=17) com alto nível de burnout foi o de treinamento. Conclui-se que não é possível estabelecer um comportamento único e coletivo a respeito das oscilações dos níveis de burnout em atletas da categoria sub-20 durante uma temporada esportiva e que a tabela de referência da categoria contribui para uma maior acertibilidade da avaliação do burnout em cada período da temporada.

Tracking Clinical Staff Behaviors in an Operating Room.

Inadequate staff behaviors in an operating room (OR) may lead to environmental contamination and increase the risk of surgical site infection. In order to assess this statement objectively, we have developed an approach to analyze OR staff behaviors using a motion tracking system. The present article introduces a solution for the assessment of individual displacements in the OR by: (1) detecting human presence and quantifying movements using a motion capture (MOCAP) system and (2) observing doors' movements by means of a wireless network of inertial sensors fixed on the doors and synchronized with the MOCAP system. The system was used in eight health care facilities sites during 30 cardiac and orthopedic surgery interventions. A total of 119 h of data were recorded and analyzed. Three hundred thirty four individual displacements were reconstructed. On average, only 10.6% individual positions could not be reconstructed and were considered undetermined, i.e., the presence in the room of the corresponding staff member could not be determined. The article presents the hardware and software developed together with the obtained reconstruction performances.

Avaliação das práticas de higiene nos serviços de restauração da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane / Evaluation of hygiene practices in the food services of the Eduardo Mondlane University Mondlane University (UEM)

O presente trabalho tinha como objectivo avaliar as práticas de higiene associadas aos factores de riscos de doenças bacterianas de origem alimentar nos serviços de restauração da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. O estudo foi realizado nos serviços de restauração da UEM de Maputo e Inhambane. Foram inqueridos, através de um questionário de perguntas semi-estruturadas, 37 trabalhadores com a categoria de cozinheiros e auxiliares de cozinha, foram visitadas as instalações e tiraram-se algumas fotografias por meio de uma máquina fotográfica digital da marca SAMSUNG. 80% dos inquiridos tinha escolaridade básica; 48% eram do sexo feminino e 52% masculino, a idade dos inquiridos variava de 22 a 57 anos e o tempo de serviço de 3 a 31 anos. Segundo os resultados do estudo os inquiridos têm consciência da necessidade de implementação das práticas correctas de higiene no decurso das suas actividades de modo a prevenir as doenças de origem alimentar. Contudo, foram observadas práticas que constituem factores de risco para a ocorrência de doenças bacterianas de origem alimentar. Os factores de risco observados estavam relacionados a prática incorrectas de armazenamento, higiene pessoal e geral, manipulação das sobras de alimentos, acondicionamento de lixo e controle de pragas. Conclui-se que a falta de observância de práticas correctas de higiene nos serviços de restauração concorre para o surgimento de doenças bacterianas de origem alimentar. Recomenda-se a implementação de programas educativos integrados regulares no sector, supervisão permanente e encorajamento de mudanças de comportamento na manipulação de alimentos.

The objective of the present study was to assess the practices of hygiene associated to the risks of foodborne diseases at restauration services of Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM). The study took place at services of restauration of UEM of Maputo and Inhambane; the data was collated using a questionnaire, with semi-structure questions. The questionnaire was submitted to 37 works namely cookers and auxiliaries of cookers, the installations were visited and some photography was taken using a SUMSUNG digital camera. 80% of the enquired has basic education; 48% were female and 52 were male; the age of the enquired varied from 22 to 57 years and the period of time of work varied from 3 to 31 years. According to the results of the study the inquired was aware about the need of the implementation of correct practices of hygiene during the work in order to avoid the foodborne diseases. However, was observed practices which constitute risk factor to the occurrence of foodborne diseases. The risk factors observed were related to storage, general and personal hygiene and handle of leftover, waste and pest control. It was concluded that the lack of correct practices of hygiene in the service of restauration constitute risk factor for the occurrence of foodborne diseases. It recommends the implementation of regular program of education, permanent supervision and encouraging of change of behaver in the handle of food.

Is it time to revise the definition of research misconduct?

U.S. federal policy defines research misconduct as fabrication of data, falsification of data, or plagiarism (FFP). In recent years, some have argued or suggested that the definition of research misconduct should also include sexual harassment, sabotage, deceptive use of statistics, and failure to disclose a significant conflict of interest (COI). While the arguments for revising the definition of misconduct used by federal agencies to include misbehaviors other than FFP are not convincing at this point in time, the arguments for revising definitions used by other organizations, such as professional societies, universities, or journals, may be. Since these other organizations play an important role in promoting integrity in science and deterring unethical behavior, they may consider adopting definitions of misconduct that extend beyond FFP. Debates about the definition of research misconduct are a normal and healthy part of broader discussions about integrity in science and how best to promote it. These debates should continue even if the federal definition of misconduct remains unchanged.

Instruments measuring behavioral aspects of the nurse-patient relationship: a scoping review protocol.

REVIEW QUESTION/OBJECTIVE: The objective of this scoping review is to identify and map the range of tools that measure behavioral aspects of the nurse-patient relationship (i.e. the behaviors employed by nurses to develop and maintain a relationship with their patients) within any healthcare setting and for any patient group. Specifically, the review will map the behaviors that are measured through these tools, how the tools have been used and in what contexts. The specific review question is: what tools are available to measure the behavioral aspects of nurse-patient relationships?

Belief in free will affects causal attributions when judging others' behavior.

Free will is a cornerstone of our society, and psychological research demonstrates that questioning its existence impacts social behavior. In six studies, we tested whether believing in free will is related to the correspondence bias, which reflects people's automatic tendency to overestimate the influence of internal as compared to external factors when interpreting others' behavior. All studies demonstrate a positive relationship between the strength of the belief in free will and the correspondence bias. Moreover, in two experimental studies, we showed that weakening participants' belief in free will leads to a reduction of the correspondence bias. Finally, the last study demonstrates that believing in free will predicts prescribed punishment and reward behavior, and that this relation is mediated by the correspondence bias. Overall, these studies show that believing in free will impacts fundamental social-cognitive processes that are involved in the understanding of others' behavior.

Explaining Moral Behavior.

In this review we make a simple theoretical argument which is that for theory development, computational modeling, and general frameworks for understanding moral psychology researchers should build on domain-general principles from reasoning, judgment, and decision-making research. Our approach is radical with respect to typical models that exist in moral psychology that tend to propose complex innate moral grammars and even evolutionarily guided moral principles. In support of our argument we show that by using a simple value-based decision model we can capture a range of core moral behaviors. Crucially, the argument we propose is that moral situations per se do not require anything specialized or different from other situations in which we have to make decisions, inferences, and judgments in order to figure out how to act.

Engineering Student's Ethical Awareness and Behavior: A New Motivational Model.

Professional communities are experiencing scandals involving unethical and illegal practices daily. Yet it should not take a national major structure failure to highlight the importance of ethical awareness and behavior, or the need for the development and practice of ethical behavior in engineering students. Development of ethical behavior skills in future engineers is a key competency for engineering schools as ethical behavior is a part of the professional identity and practice of engineers. While engineering educators have somewhat established instructional methods to teach engineering ethics, they still rely heavily on teaching ethical awareness, and pay little attention to how well ethical awareness predicts ethical behavior. However the ability to exercise ethical judgement does not mean that students are ethically educated or likely to behave in an ethical manner. This paper argues measuring ethical judgment is insufficient for evaluating the teaching of engineering ethics, because ethical awareness has not been demonstrated to translate into ethical behavior. The focus of this paper is to propose a model that correlates with both, ethical awareness and ethical behavior. This model integrates the theory of planned behavior, person and thing orientation, and spheres of control. Applying this model will allow educators to build confidence and trust in their students' ability to build a professional identity and be prepared for the engineering profession and practice.

Assessing Freshman Engineering Students' Understanding of Ethical Behavior.

Academic dishonesty, including cheating and plagiarism, is on the rise in colleges, particularly among engineering students. While students decide to engage in these behaviors for many different reasons, academic integrity training can help improve their understanding of ethical decision making. The two studies outlined in this paper assess the effectiveness of an online module in increasing academic integrity among first semester engineering students. Study 1 tested the effectiveness of an academic honesty tutorial by using a between groups design with a Time 1- and Time 2-test. An academic honesty quiz assessed participants' knowledge at both time points. Study 2, which incorporated an improved version of the module and quiz, utilized a between groups design with three assessment time points. The additional Time 3-test allowed researchers to test for retention of information. Results were analyzed using ANCOVA and t tests. In Study 1, the experimental group exhibited significant improvement on the plagiarism items, but not the total score. However, at Time 2 there was no significant difference between groups after controlling for Time 1 scores. In Study 2, between- and within-group analyses suggest there was a significant improvement in total scores, but not plagiarism scores, after exposure to the tutorial. Overall, the academic integrity module impacted participants as evidenced by changes in total score and on specific plagiarism items. Although future implementation of the tutorial and quiz would benefit from modifications to reduce ceiling effects and improve assessment of knowledge, the results suggest such tutorial may be one valuable element in a systems approach to improving the academic integrity of engineering students.

Authentic leadership, group cohesion and group identification in security and emergency teams / Liderazgo auténtico, cohesión e identifi cación grupal en equipos de seguridad y emergencia

BACKGROUND: Authentic leadership (AL) is a kind of leadership that inspires and promotes positive psychological capacities, underlining the moral and ethical component of behavior. The proposed investigation studies the relations among AL, cohesion, and group identification in security and emergency teams. METHOD: A cross-sectional research design was conducted in which participated 221 members from 26 fire departments and operative teams from the local police of three Spanish provinces. The following questionnaires were administered: Authentic Leadership (ALQ), Group Cohesion (GEQ), and Mael and Ashford's Group Identification Questionnaire. RESULTS: A direct and positive relation was found between AL, cohesion, and group identification. An indirect relation was also found between AL and group cohesion through group identification, indicating the existence of partial mediation. CONCLUSIONS: The utility of the proposed model based on AL is considered; this model can be employed by those in charge of the fire departments and operative groups in organizations to improve workteams' cohesion. Both AL and group identification help to explain group cohesion in organizations committed to security and emergencies

ANTECEDENTES: el liderazgo auténtico (LA) es un tipo de liderazgo que inspira y promueve capacidades psicológicas positivas, destacando el componente moral y ético de las conductas. La investigación planteada estudia las relaciones entre LA, cohesión e identificación grupal en equipos de seguridad y emergencia. MÉTODO: se desarrolla un diseño de investigación transversal en el que participan 221 componentes de 26 brigadas de bomberos y equipos operativos de policía local de tres provincias españolas. Se administraron los cuestionarios ALQ de liderazgo auténtico, GEQ de cohesión grupal y el cuestionario de Mael y Ashford que mide identificación grupal. RESULTADOS: se encontró una relación directa positiva entre el LA, la cohesión y la identificación grupal. Asimismo, se encontró también una relación indirecta entre el LA y la cohesión grupal a través de la identificación grupal apuntando los datos a la existencia de una mediación parcial. CONCLUSIONES: se considera de utilidad el modelo propuesto basado en el LA, pudiendo ser empleado por los responsables de las brigadas y grupos operativos en organizaciones para mejorar la cohesión de los equipos de trabajo. Tanto el LA como la identificación grupal ayudan a explicar la cohesión grupal en organizaciones con cometidos relacionados con la seguridad y las emergencias

Spanish version of the Children’s Ecological Behavior (CEB) scale / Versión española de la escala de Comportamiento Ecológico para Niños (CEN)

BACKGROUND: Children's pro-ecological behaviors are usually registered using scales based on the idea of a simple connection between attitudes and behaviors. However, this relationship seems to be more complicated. The Children's Ecological Behavior (CEB) Scale has been proposed as an alternative. Based on the Rasch model, it considers the different efforts needed to conduct a series of behaviors. This paper presents an improved adaptation of the CEB to Spanish population. METHOD: We back-translated the CEB into Spanish, increased the number of behaviors and collected data from 6- to 12-year-olds, using a game format procedure. RESULTS: The scale can detect differences in the effort needed to perform various behaviors. Children's pro-ecological attitudes and behaviors are positively related. No relationship was found between parents' and children's pro-ecological attitudes and behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: The Spanish version of the CEB scale emerges as a reliable tool to measure children's pro-ecological behaviors

ANTECEDENTES: el comportamiento pro-ecológico infantil suele registrarse con escalas basadas en la existencia de una conexión simple entre actitud y comportamiento. Sin embargo, esta relación parece ser más compleja. La escala de Comportamiento Ecológico para Niños (CEN) ha sido propuesta como una alternativa. Basándose en el modelo del Rasch, esta considera que distintas conductas requirieren distinto grado de esfuerzo. Se presenta una adaptación mejorada de la CEN a la población española. MÉTODO: se realizó una traducción inversa de la CEN, se amplió el número de conductas registradas y se recogieron datos con niños (6-12 años), usando un procedimiento de juegos. RESULTADOS: la escala diferencia entre comportamientos que requieren distinto grado de esfuerzo. Existe una relación positiva entre las actitudes y el comportamiento pro-ecológico de los niños. No se encontró relación entre las actitudes y comportamiento pro-ecológico de padres e hijos. CONCLUSIONES: la versión española de la escala CEN es un instrumento fiable para registrar conductas pro-ecológicas infantiles

Business culture and dishonesty in the banking industry.

Trust in others' honesty is a key component of the long-term performance of firms, industries, and even whole countries. However, in recent years, numerous scandals involving fraud have undermined confidence in the financial industry. Contemporary commentators have attributed these scandals to the financial sector's business culture, but no scientific evidence supports this claim. Here we show that employees of a large, international bank behave, on average, honestly in a control condition. However, when their professional identity as bank employees is rendered salient, a significant proportion of them become dishonest. This effect is specific to bank employees because control experiments with employees from other industries and with students show that they do not become more dishonest when their professional identity or bank-related items are rendered salient. Our results thus suggest that the prevailing business culture in the banking industry weakens and undermines the honesty norm, implying that measures to re-establish an honest culture are very important.

Neuroimaging: beginning to appreciate its complexities.

For over a century, scientists have sought to see through the protective shield of the human skull and into the living brain. Today, an array of technologies allows researchers and clinicians to create astonishingly detailed images of our brain's structure as well as colorful depictions of the electrical and physiological changes that occur within it when we see, hear, think and feel. These technologies-and the images they generate-are an increasingly important tool in medicine and science. Given the role that neuroimaging technologies now play in biomedical research, both neuroscientists and nonexperts should aim to be as clear as possible about how neuroimages are made and what they can-and cannot-tell us. Add to this that neuroimages have begun to be used in courtrooms at both the determination of guilt and sentencing stages, that they are being employed by marketers to refine advertisements and develop new products, that they are being sold to consumers for the diagnosis of mental disorders and for the detection of lies, and that they are being employed in arguments about the nature (or absence) of powerful concepts like free will and personhood, and the need for citizens to have a basic understanding of how this technology works and what it can and cannot tell us becomes even more pressing.

Seeing responsibility: can neuroimaging teach us anything about moral and legal responsibility?

As imaging technologies help us understand the structure and function of the brain, providing insight into human capabilities as basic as vision and as complex as memory, and human conditions as impairing as depression and as fraught as psychopathy, some have asked whether they can also help us understand human agency. Specifically, could neuroimaging lead us to reassess the socially significant practice of assigning and taking responsibility? While responsibility itself is not a psychological process open to investigation through neuroimaging, decision-making is. Over the past decade, different researchers and scholars have sought to use neuroimaging (or the results of neuroimaging studies) to investigate what is going on in the brain when we make decisions. The results of this research raise the question whether neuroscience-especially now that it includes neuroimaging-can and should alter our understandings of responsibility and our related practice of holding people responsible. It is this question that we investigate here.

Functional neuroimaging: technical, logical, and social perspectives.

Neuroscientists have long sought to study the dynamic activity of the human brain-what's happening in the brain, that is, while people are thinking, feeling, and acting. Ideally, an inside look at brain function would simultaneously and continuously measure the biochemical state of every cell in the central nervous system. While such a miraculous method is science fiction, a century of progress in neuroimaging technologies has made such simultaneous and continuous measurement a plausible fiction. Despite this progress, practitioners of modern neuroimaging struggle with two kinds of limitations: those that attend the particular neuroimaging methods we have today and those that would limit any method of imaging neural activity, no matter how powerful. In this essay, I consider the liabilities and potential of techniques that measure human brain activity. I am concerned here only with methods that measure relevant physiologic states of the central nervous system and relate those measures to particular mental states. I will consider in particular the preeminent method of functional neuroimaging: BOLD fMRI. While there are several practical limits on the biological information that current technologies can measure, these limits-as important as they are-are minor in comparison to the fundamental logical restraints on the conclusions that can be drawn from brain imaging studies.